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Jesus, the
Tribulation, and the End of Exile : Restoration Eschatology and the Origin of
the Atonement.
Brant Pitre
Grand Rapids: Baker Academic: 2005. 0801031621.
Chapter One:
Introduction
Pitre begins his work with his thesis statement (1.1), which sets forth his
two primary objectives of the study: to “attempt to trace the development
and shape of the concept of eschatological tribulation in
late Second Temple
Judaism” (2, emphasis in original); and “to determine whether
the historical
Jesus ever spoke or acted on the basis of his own expectation of a
period of eschatological tribulation” (3, emphasis in original). He posits
at the outset that the evidence he surveys will show that Jesus did in fact
speak and act in a manner consistent with Jewish expectation of the
eschatological tribulation as demonstrated through an examination of late
Second Temple Judaism. This specific belief and hope is demonstrably tied to
the Jewish conviction of the ingathering of the twelve tribes from among the
nations (4).
At this point (1.2), Pitre provides a brief sketch of
the notion of tribulation within Jewish literature as a way of defining
the boundaries of his investigation within scholarship. He then goes on
to survey modern historical Jesus research, building upon key scholars
in the field, beginning with A. Schweitzer. The author writes well to
show a thorough understanding and investigation of each scholar’s
various conclusions, while maintaining the necessary brevity of an
introductory survey. Of modern historical Jesus researchers Pitre is
most interactive with N. T. Wright (2.8), who has been influential in
(re-) establishing the role of the exile in the Second Temple period and
in the background for Jesus’ own messianic expectations. Pitre will
return to Wright in an excursus below.
The third section of the Introduction has to do with the methodology
which will guide the thesis (1.3). At the outset the author states,
“This study will use traditional methods of historical-criticism, such
as exegesis in light of the Old Testament and Second Temple Jewish
literature, the use of insights from the literary methods of form,
source, and redaction criticism, and close examination of how each Jesus
tradition fares under the standard criteria of historicity. In
particular, each Jesus tradition will be subjected to rigorous exegesis
before any arguments are made regarding its historicity, meaning, and
significance for the message and ministry of the historical Jesus” (23).
Following this statement of procedure, Pitre then
outlines the various sources from antiquity with which he will interact
(3.1), his use of the Old Testament (3.2), and his criteria of
authenticity regarding matters surrounding the historical Jesus (3.3).
Finally, Pitre returns to the work of N. T. Wright in an excursus to
discuss his nuanced view of the end of exile within Jewish messianic
expectation during the Second Temple period (3.5). Straightforwardly he
asserts, “Unfortunately, what Wright means by ‘the end of exile’ is
inherently flawed” (32). Pitre’s point is simply that while Wright is
correct in bringing forward the end of exile motif as a vital aspect of
Jewish hope and messianic expectation, he is also “fundamentally wrong
in his understanding of [the exile]” (32).
The fundamental points of Wright’s argument (along with Pitre’s
challenges) are given as: 1) claiming that the Babylonian exile had not
yet ended, 2) a re-defining of
exile
to no longer refer to geographic expulsion, and 3) Wright equates the
Jews of the Second Temple period with all Israel. In contrast with this
perspective, Pitre contends that geographic expulsion is still in view,
which means that the greater portion of Israel was still in exile during
this period (34) and that the scattering of Jews among the nations still
await the fulfillment of the end of exile (35). Pitre concludes, “while
no
first-century Jew living in the land would have considered themselves to
still be in exile,
every
first-century Jew would have known that the ten tribes of the northern
kingdom were still in exile” (38, emphasis in original). Thus, the
primary hope and messianic expectation among Second Temple Judaism was
the final ingathering of all twelve tribes of Israel from among the
nations (40).
Chapter Two: The Messianic Tribulation and the End of the Exile in Late
Second Temple Judaism
This chapter surveys a number of texts from late Second Temple Judaism to
uncover data and discover perspectives on 1) how the eschatological
tribulation is depicted, 2) the precise literary context of the texts, 3)
how
messianic
plays a particular role in the eschatological viewpoints, 4) what scriptural
basis is provided for such expectation, and 5) what connection exists
between the eschatological tribulation and the restoration of Israel as the
end of exile (42-43). Rather than summarize Pitre’s summaries or make an
attempt to survey each of his interactions, I will simply point out certain
sections of his overview which hold particular interest to my own range of
study and interest.
The first work which is engaged is
The
Apocalypse of Weeks (1 Enoch 93:1-10; 91:11-17) (2.2), which
emphasizes a period of tribulation which is to precede the era of
salvation (44). More specifically, this era is one which will be
characterized by Israel’s apostasy and the widespread deceit and
violence. Pitre sees four particular points emerge: 1) it appears
that the primary function of this tribulation is to inaugurate the
final judgment, 2) there is no direct reference to a messianic
figure in the text (the only “king” is God himself), 3) history
seems to move on the typical apocalyptic understanding of
predetermined patterns, and 4) the eschatological tribulation seems
to be directly connected to the exile and the restoration of all
Israel (45-46). From this the author sees the tribulation as “the
climax of Israel’s exilic sufferings” (47).
Third on
Pitre’s survey is
The Book of Daniel (2.4), which focuses on
“the latter period of the wrath” and the “time of tribulation” (52).
Daniel’s famous vision of the four beasts and the judgment scene
before the “one like a son of man” and the Ancient of Days
introduces a messianic element to eschatological expectation.
Pitre’s exegesis of these events shows unparalleled and worldwide
tribulation with the rise of an eschatological tyrant, and a period
of war, lawlessness and persecution of the saints (53). The
eschatological framework is found in that it will precede a time of
judgment to establish an “everlasting kingdom” (Daniel 7:18, 26-27).
The emphasis given in Daniel on the period of tribulation is seen as
“the eschatological climax of Israel’s continuing exile” (59). Thus,
it is the expectation of the messianic figure, whose death atones
for the sins of Israel will also lead them out of exile (61).
The Psalms
of Solomon (2.8) appear seventh in Pitre’s survey, of
which he states, “There is absolutely no question that the
tribulation described in the
Psalms of
Solomon is messianic” (79). There are two initial
descriptions given of the messianic tribulation (both which appear
to refer to the same set of events): it is a time of divine judgment
upon an apostate Israel and defiled temple cult as well as a period
of suffering (80). This period of suffering is twofold in its
effect, serving as both a time of testing for the righteous and a
purgation for the sinful. From this is gathered the perspective that
both righteous and sinful will experience the great tribulation. It
is interesting to note, then, that one of the principle tasks of the
Messiah is “to
gather the dispersed people of Israel, at least some
of whom were ‘scattered over the whole earth’ in the eschatological
tribulation itself” (83, emphasis in original). Such expectation
demonstrates the hope of Israel in an increasingly lawless and
defiled system, disfigured by their apostasy.
A brief note
of interest regarding
The Testament of Moses (2.9) is that “the suffering of
a righteous remnant within an apostate Israel during the tribulation
somehow
inaugurates
the coming of the [sic]
God’s kingdom” (89, emphasis in original).
Interesting points
in
4QPsalms Pesher (4Q171)
(2.11) are found in the scroll’s emphasis on the return from exile
and the restoration of the community. In the coming period of
affliction, the righteous will take the suffering upon themselves.
Somehow the righteous will be delivered from the suffering,
demonstrating some sort of atoning or redemptive significance (97).
Pitre points out that “the vocabulary of this redemptive act is
couched in terms of a return from exile” (97). Thus, there is a
necessary trial for the righteous which is has a purging function
emerging from the tribulation (98). “In other words, the persecuted
righteous will atone for sin and thereby be restored to the land
precisely by
suffering the eschatological
tribulation” (99,
emphasis in original).
Also of interest
is
1QWar Scroll (1QM)
(2.15), which speaks of “the day of
calamity” and the “time of distress” which Pitre interprets as
consistent with his ongoing investigation and working definition of
the eschatological tribulation. The tribulation is also designated
as “the trial of God,” which further emphasizes its function as
testing and purging the true people of God (113). The eschatological
battle which is described in this document makes a strong connection
between the eschatological tribulation and the end of exile (115).
It is the tribulation which would bring about the return of the
twelve tribes of Israel from exile, as well as see the defeat of the
sons of darkness and the restoration of Jerusalem (116). The pattern
of suffering and tribulation as preceding restoration remains.
Although Pitre
surveys 17 various documents and fragments from late Second Temple
Judaism, only a few points have been listed here. His findings are
well presented and there appears to be a consistency which allows
him to make solid summaries and conclusions. His final subsection
(2.18) brings together several of his key points. He begins with the
assertion, “Before the destruction of the Second Temple, there was
clearly a widespread expectation that a time of suffering and
catastrophe would in some way be related to the advent of the
eschatological deliverer of the last days” (127). Thus, suffering
and catastrophe have a place in the advent of the last days of
Israel’s exile, just prior to the end of exile. Second, he maintains
that the expectation of messianic tribulation can be found in a
diverse range of various genres of Jewish literature from the period
(127-128). This demonstrates the wide-spread belief of such themes
which shaped (and was shaped by) messianic expectation. Finally,
Pitre summarizes his results by cataloguing several major aspects of
the tribulation which existed within Jewish belief. They are (listed
in order of frequency):
1. The tribulation
is tied to
the restoration of Israel and the End
of the Exile.
2. A
righteous remnant
arises during the tribulation.
3. The
righteous suffer and/or die
during the tribulation. This sometimes includes
the suffering and/or death of a
messianic figure.
4. The tribulation is tied to
the coming of a Messiah,
sometimes referred to as the “Son
of Man.”
5. The tribulation precedes
the final judgment.
6. The tribulation is depicted as
the eschatological climax of Israel’s
exilic sufferings,
often through the imagery of the
Deuteronomic covenant curses.
7. The tribulation has
two stages:
(1) the
preliminary
stage, and (2)
the Great Tribulation.
8. The tribulation precedes
the coming of an eschatological
kingdom.
9. An
eschatological tyrant, opponent,
or
anti-Messiah
arises during the tribulation.
10.
Typological images from the Old
Testament are used to
depict the tribulation.
11. The tribulation is tied to
the ingathering and/or conversion of
the Gentiles.
12. The tribulation has some kind of
atoning or redemptive function.
13. The
Jerusalem Temple
is
defiled
and/or
destroyed
during the tribulation.
14. The tribulation precedes the
resurrection of the dead and/or a new
creation (Pitre,
128-129).
Chapter Three: The Tribulation and the Enigmatic Sayings of Jesus
In the next chapter of his thesis, Pitre build his study around four main
teaching sections from the gospel accounts: Matt. 6:9-13//Luke 11:1-4; Matt.
11:12-13//Luke 16:16; Mark 9:11-13; Matt. 10:34-36//Luke 12:51-53 (Gos.
Thom. 16). The author states that his reasoning for selecting these
particular passages is to demonstrate the wide impact made by the
tribulation upon the ministry of Jesus (131). Further, there is material
taken from different form categories, which helps Pitre interact with the
independent tradition.
Matt.
6:9-13//Luke 11:1-4
“Lead us not into
peirasmos”
(Matt. 6:13) seems to be one of the more important texts which
highlights Pitre’s work (133, see also the Introduction on p. 1).
Again, the author interacts closely with N. T. Wright, who
interprets this prayer as an expression of “the ancient Jewish hope
for a New
Exodus” (137, emphasis in original). Wright’s approach to the
text stems from his connection of the overarching Old Testament
texts which speak of a new exodus and the end of exile. Pitre acce
pts this claim, but seeks to strengthen Wright’s
position through his own analysis and exegesis (138f.). A key text
is found in Exodus 4:22-23, where God’s fatherhood of Isr
ael is seen as being connected to the exodus
event, but more specifically to the deliverance which is provided
through Passover (138). Such a background image serves to strengthen
the petition which Jesus makes when addressing
Father
(Matt. 6:9) to set the appropriate context for his prayer.
The reference to God’s name being hallowed and
the call for the kingdom of God to come (Matt. 6:9-10) also finds
connection with the Old Testament narrative. Indeed, Pitre sees a
strong link between
the parallels of this sentiment with the theme of
a new exodus as found in Ezekiel 36:22-28 and Micah 4:5-8 (140). An
examination of these texts demonstrates the expectation of the
coming kingdom of God being a time when Israel would see the very
name of God hallowed throughout the land (e.g. 141). Regarding the
coming
of the kingdom, Pitre asserts that such can be envisaged when viewed
not as a geographic entity (not even an abstract reign of God), but
rather a people who are emerging from exile (143).
Pitre further examines the petitions for the
daily provision of bread (Matt. 6:11) as well as the forgiveness of
debts/sins (Matt. 6:11). Quite simply and straightforwardly, the
exodus event can be seen in parallel with the request for daily
bread as one considers the sustenance of manna in the wilderness,
suggesting that the return from exile has indeed begun (144). The
notion of forgiveness finds connection to the messianic Jubilee
which is quite present in the Old Testament and various messianic
expectation. Building upon Wright, Pitre contends that
forgiveness of sins is equivalent to
return
from exile (145).
All of this leads up to the clause, “lead us not
into
peirasmos,” which must be considered in light of exilic
return and new exodus if the preceding verses held such a strong
connection (cf. 146). Even more so, Pitre suggests that this phrase
is also related to the eschatological tribulation (146). The
question and scope of the eschatological tribulation comes into play
for Pitre who, along with W. D. Davies and D. Allison, asserts that
Jesus understood as beginning with the persecution and death of John
the Baptist (150-151). Therefore, “all
trials and tribulations - even those that were to take place on a
daily basis - could be interpreted as manifestations of the
eschatological time of trial” (151, emphasis in original). He goes
on to state:
“Because the very notion of the final ingathering
of the lost tribes of Israel was fundamentally eschatological in
nature, there is good reason to believe that in
context
the
peirasmos is referring to the eschatological tribulation that
would precede the end of the age and the coming of the kingdom of
God. In support of this is the fact that the eschatological
tribulation was specifically connected by several early Jewish texts
to the coming of an eschatological
kingdom”
(151, emphasis in original).
The prayer for deliverance from the time of trial
is understood by Pitre as the prayer for deliverance from the
tribulation itself, a position he shares with Schweitzer and Wright
(153).
Matt.
11:12-13//Luke 16:16
In approaching an understanding of this difficult text from
Scripture, Pitre begins with the observation that two primary points
appear to be made by the two versions: 1) “First,
the law
and the prophets somehow
lasted up until the time of John, with his appearance marking
the in-breaking of the kingdom of God,” and 2) “Second, the ‘kingdom’
of God currently suffers some kind of ‘violence’”
(163-164). There is much to be said regarding this passage, and the
author surveys a number of suggested options. His overall suggestion
is that the key to unlocking the passage is found in the
tribulation, which includes aspects of both the rise of lawlessness
and the period of eschatological strife (166-167).
Not a few scholars link together violence enacted
against the kingdom with the eschatological tribulation. Also, the
survey of Second Temple Jewish literature also demonstrates an
expectation of tribulation which is to precede the coming kingdom
(e.g. The
Apocalypse of Weeks) (166-167). The connection with a period
of lawlessness is also present in this passage, as is part of the
eschatological expectation. It is thus Pitre’s position that the
persecution and death of John the Baptist inaugurated the
eschatological period, which is now being characterized by the final
tribulation of lawlessness and violence (168f., esp. 171). One
particular outcome of this reading is that Jesus’
inaugurated eschatology is seen in this passage as the
tribulation which is part of the kingdom appears (176-177).
Mark
9:11-13
The next section appears in the wake of Mark’s account of the
transfiguration, a scene which points to the future resurrection
(Mark 9:9). Pitre identifies “three formal elements” which comprise
Jesus’ response to his disciples in vv. 12-13: 1) “an affirmative
answer to the disciples question (Yes, Elijah is coming to restore
all things)”; 2) “a scribal-type riddle” and 3) “an enigmatic
declaration of the fulfillment of prophecy” (179). Pitre’s analysis
of this section challenges traditional scholarship’s misplaced
emphasis on Elijah as a forerunner to the Messiah, instead making
the assertion that the Old Testament and early Jewish texts suggest
“that [Elijah’s] coming was almost certainly linked with the
eschatological tribulation” (181). He lends support to this claim by
referring to Malachi 4, Sirach 48,
4QMessianic Apocalypse,
4QVision,
and 4 Ezra,
each of which he sees as showing the crucial point “that Elijah will
return
during a final period of interfamilial and interpersonal strife”
(182, emphasis in original).
It becomes clear through Pitre’s reading of these
texts that there was a strong expectation for Elijah to precede the
eschatological tribulation. This point serves to underline Jesus’
own link between the coming of Elijah with persecution and suffering
(183). Further, the author asserts that Jesus points to the events
of interfamilial and interpersonal strife as evidence of the arrival
of the eschatological tribulation (184). A second point regarding
Jesus’ ministry is seen in the connection he draws between the
suffering of Elijah and the suffering Son of Man, both being
connected to the time of tribulation (186). In both cases, there is
an element of Jesus’ own interpretation and use of the Old Testament
and early Jewish texts in order to demonstrate the fulfillment of
their expectation.
Of final note regarding the authenticity of this
passage: Pitre challenges the position taken up by J. Meier that
this text emerged from Gospel traditions which do not adequately
reflect this historicity of John or Jesus (189f.). After providing
three “flaws” in Meier’s argument, Pitre seeks to demonstrate that
the passage meets the criterion of discontinuity with the early
church on three specific accounts (191f.). He convincingly argues
that the passage is indeed authentic as an accurate representation
of the historical Jesus.
Matt.
10:34-36//Luke 12:51-53; Gos. Thom. 16
The final text which Pitre examines in this chapter comes as one of
the more disturbing of the sayings of Jesus. It is pointed out that
in both Matthew and Luke the saying comes in the context of
references to the eschatological tribulation (200). Although some
interpreters, such as B. Ehrman, read this passage as an indication
of Jesus’ mission being “antifamily” (i.e., 207), it is more likely
the case that, as stated by F. F. Bruce, “familial strife in only
the effect
of his coming, and not its
purpose”
(208, emphasis in original). Micah 7:5-6 clearly stands behind the
text as it reads in Matthew and Luke, and Pitre’s exegesis of the
text further points to “this future period to
the return
of an eschatological remnant of scattered Israel” (209,
emphasis in original). Thus Micah is placing the period of familial
strife just before the restoration of Israel and the ingathering of
the scattered tribes.
All of this points to Jesus’ words as being an indication that “he
must first unleash the time of strife that will precede the
restoration of Israel and the End of the Exile” (210, emphasis in
original). This understanding allows the reader to see this gospel
text as pointing to the eschatological division which is part of the
messianic restoration of Israel. Taken with the previous evidence,
this means that Jesus is here using the imagery of Micah to mark the
beginning of the tribulation which would inaugurate the last days
before Israel’s restoration (e.g., 211).
Summary
and Conclusions
After pulling together some of his key points, Pitre sets forth
several implications for his reading of these four key texts. First,
he recognizes that in order to understand some of Jesus’ most
enigmatic sayings one must uncover Jewish expectation regarding the
eschatological tribulation (217). Furthermore, an examination of
these key texts “also show that Jesus, unlike some modern versions
of eschatology, went to great lengths to insist upon the fact that
the coming of salvation could in no way be detached from a time of
suffering and tribulation” (217). Rather, he seems to place a
necessity
of an era of tribulation to come before the time of renewal and
restoration (Pitre here says that before an era of
salvation,
which I believe *might*be an overstatement based upon other key
gospel texts).
Pitre’s final implication is that these passages reveal how “Jesus’
message contained an element of realized eschatology that often goes
unnoted” (217-218). By appealing to Jesus sense that the kingdom of
God has already begun, one must also recognize that Jesus believed
that a period of tribulation (the last days) had also already begun.
Eloquently put:
“If this is true, then he would have perceived
his ministry as not only standing in the morning-glow of the dawn of
the kingdom of God, but also under the shadow of the eschatological
tribulation” (218).
Chapter Four: The Great Tribulation, the Coming of the Messiah, and the End
of Exile
Turning his focus to the
future
expectations of tribulation and messiah within Jesus’ own mission and
ministry Pitre now offers a reading of Mark 13, the Olivet Discourse.
His approach is centered thematically around three main divisions of the
text: The
“Birth Pangs” of the Messiah and the Destruction of Jerusalem (Mark
13:5-8) (4.2),
The
Tribulation and the Ingathering of the Gentiles (Mark 13:9-13)
(4.3), and The
Temple Destruction, the Coming Son of Man, and the Ingathering of the
Exiles (Mark 13:14-27) (4.4). The uniqueness of this chapter
comes also with Pitre’s constant consideration of historical Jesus
research throughout (222).
Mark
13:5-8
The first point of exegesis comes with Jesus’ warning against the
coming of deceivers (v. 5) who will attempt to lead astray his
disciples and others. Coming with what appears to be prophetic
authority and claims to be the Messiah, these individuals will seek
to capitalize on the increasing time of tribulation - a sign of the
last days (226-227). Pitre suggests that there is also an allusion
to Daniel’s prophecy with the refrain, “these things must take
place; but it is not yet the end” (Mark 13:8) (227). This is
connected to the “birth pangs,” a vivid use of apocalyptic imagery
which closely aligns with Old Testament and Second Temple Jewish
literature as a reference to the tribulation. This, according to
Pitre, typically does one of two things: “accompanies
the
destruction of a city or nation or precedes the
coming of the Messiah” (229, emphasis in original).
It appears, then, that the false messiahs are a
part of the “birth pangs” themselves which will ultimately bring
about the destruction of the Temple and the coming of the Messiah
(231).
Of the thorough and helpful interaction with
historical Jesus research in this section, I will point out one
which has to do with the fulfillment of Jesus’ words. It has often
been claimed that this section of Mark was fabricated by the early
church to account for the many false messiahs which emerged in the
years between the death of Jesus and the Jewish war. However, as
Pitre is right to point out, there is no actual evidence available
which correlate with what is actually said by Jesus in this passage
(242).
Thus, there is good reason to believe this saying
as authentic and solid historical ground on which to build a better
understanding of Jesus’ own understanding.
Mark
13:9-13
Immediately following the reference to “birth pangs” is Jesus’
reference to persecutions which would come upon his disciples as
well as the promise that they would receive the Holy Spirit. Pitre
regards this passage as “salvation eschatologically conceived”
through the threefold exhortation of 1) the
good news
being proclaimed to both Jew and Gentile, 2) the Holy Spirit
speaking through the disciples during the trial, and 3) the
salvation which would come upon the one who endured
to the end
(254-255).
The focus is once again directed to “all the
nations” seems to be a clear eschatological idea, bound together
with the end of Israel’s exile and the conversion of the Gentiles
(258). Furthermore, Pitre demonstrates a close connection with such
events and the outpouring of the Holy Spirit (reminiscent of Joel),
which would occur only as part of the ushering in of the end times
tribulation. The passage continues to point out the interfamilial
strive (vv. 12-13) which heightens the amount of tension found in
the tribulation. Pitre summarily states:
“In light of this Old Testament background, the
message of Jesus is clarified: the disciples, in their universal
proclamation of the good news of Israel’s deliverance, will face
many trials and persecutions during the forecast time of strife, but
they must not lose the hope that the Spirit would be poured out upon
them and that they would indeed be saved” (261).
In what also builds upon Isaiah’s call of
proclamation, Jesus envisages a mission to the Gentiles in which the
good news would be shared. The result would be a gathering of the
nations by going to them (263).
Two important questions (among others) arise from
Pitre’s exegesis and his survey of historical issues: 1)
who
are the “lost sheep”? and 2)
where
are the “lost sheep? Although many answers are offered to these,
Pitre’s own conclusions return again to that which finds its
foundation in Second Temple literature. He defines the “lost sheep”
as those who are found in the scattered and lost tribes of Israel
(277), who are presently among the nations (278). If this is the
basis for the text, then Pitre is on the right track when he asks,
“if the disciples were indeed to follow Jesus [sic]
command and go to ‘the lost sheep of the house of Israel,’ is there
any way possible for them
not
to enact a mission among the nations?” (278, emphasis in original).
There is thus a necessary link which Jesus has made of proclamation
to the ingathering of the Gentiles and the outpouring of the Holy
Spirit (286f.).
Mark
13:14-27
In examining the final section of the Olivet Discourse Pitre
identifies four inclusios which show this to be a single unit, as
well as four major themes which are at work throughout the section
(290-301). It is the author’s position that “the
coming of the Son of Man in Mark 13:24-27 cannot be properly
understood apart from the material that precedes it” (301,
emphasis in original).
Building upon the Danielic vision, Pitre demonstrates the probable
presuppositions of the text itself, beginning with the reference to
the abomination of desolation. The abomination is an event which
centers around the Jerusalem Temple and precedes the Great
Tribulation. Such echoes of Daniel (five which are specifically
discussed in this section), Pitre concludes that Jesus is using the
powerful imagery of Daniel to announce the arrival of the days of
the Great Tribulation (309). He further highlights this reading by
referring to Jesus’ words, “let he who reads understand.” This
phrase is taken by the author to be Jesus’ own call to his disciples
that they should recognize the prophecy of Daniel is coming to
fulfillment (Daniel’s scroll being sealed “until the time of the
end” in 12:9) in the present participation in the eschatological
tribulation (312-313).
Among the texts which use similar imagery to Jesus’ words are many
references to unparalleled tribulation which is tied to the exile
and restoration of Israel. Thus, it appears to Pitre that these
parallels also suggest that Jesus is identifying these events as “the
final period of Israel’s exilic suffering” (321, emphasis in
original). Throughout all of this, however, is an eschatological
remnant which endures the Great Tribulation. The words in this
passage describe a heightened state of emergency, the rises of false
messiahs who parallel the activity of the Son of Man (329), and the
messianic woes (vv. 14-24). The climax of the Great Tribulation is
seen in the apocalyptic imagery of a darkened sun and moon and
falling stars which accompany the coming Son of Man (332). Important
to Pitre’s thesis is the observation that such is not a separate
event, but that there is a strong connection between tribulation and
the appearance of the Messiah.
In regards to historicity, Pitre notes that the language in this
passage (specifically, “abomination to desolation”) is not utilized
in the New Testament or any other early Christian literature (355).
This variation of language holds much evidence regarding the
dissimilarity of the passage to the early church community.
Summary
and Conclusions
Pitre’s statements are once again well-summarized and reviewed in
his concluding section. He gathers the implications of much of this
chapter in his statement, “For Jesus, it appears that
the
messianic tribulation, the Great Tribulation, is nothing less than
the climax of Israel’s exilic sufferings. It is the final
period of suffering which would precede the Return from Exile, the
restoration of the twelve tribes, and the coming of the Messiah”
(379).
Chapter Five: The
Paschal Tribulation, the Death of Jesus, and the New Exodus
The overarching question which must be raised by Pitre is now addressed: “How
did Jesus view himself in relation to the tribulation?”
(381). Such will be the predominant concern of the present chapter, and the
author attends to it following a brief survey of other perspectives
(returning again to the scholarly list given in Chapter One) (383).
Structurally, this chapter is built around three particular passages which
serve to illustrate Jesus’ own self-awareness of messianic expectation and
the tribulation: Mark 10:35-45; Mark 14:26-28; Mark 14:32-42.
Mark
10:35-45
With current discussions of atonement theory being popular
within scholarly circles, this first passage is particularly
interesting since it deals with Jesus’ well-known statement,
“the Son of Man did not come to be served, but to serve, and to
give his life as a ransom for many” (v. 45). Pitre is concerned
that the text be read appropriately to its specific historical
circumstance, noting the particular dialogue which was set into
motion by James and John, as well as the disciples’ ongoing
struggle for prominence (388-389). His exegesis flows from this
and he reads the entire passage as a dialogue concerning “the
theme of eschatological glorification and rule”
(391, emphasis in original). The royal overtones of the language
and the reference to glory place an eschatological time frame to
Jesus’ words, at the same time offering an echo of Daniel 7. The
specific references to “cup” and “baptism” denote suffering
(Pitre connects the similar language and sentiment to Luke
12:49-50), and are most likely being used by Jesus to refer to
his own eschatological tribulation (394-396).
Pitre further deals with Jesus’ understanding of
Son of
Man
in reference to his own death, specifically with how that death
is connected to the eschatological tribulation (399f.). The
author connects the Mark 10 passage with a reading of Daniel
9:24-27 to help solidify the connection of the Old Testament
text to Jesus’ teaching, and highlights three specific points:
1) “the text clearly prophecies
that the
Messiah will die during the tribulation,”
2) “one of the
primary
purposes of the tribulation is to atone for sin,”
and 3) “the
forgiveness of sins
that is wrought by the tribulation will
bring
about the End of the Exile”
(401-402, all emphases in original). Pitre sees here a
harmonization of the royal and messianic figures whose death
would bring about the eschatological tribulation and the final
kingdom. The climax of this is that Jesus adopts language from
the Old Testament prophets to declare his death as being that
which releases the scattered exiles of Israel (405).
Mark
14:26-28
This passage, which utilizes a quotation from Zechariah 13:7,
contains Jesus’ words that his disciples would fall away and
would be scattered. Pitre’s reading of the prophet as background
to Jesus’ present usage leads him to assert that Jesus is in
fact declaring his death to be the catalyst which unleashes the
tribulation (457). Thus, with his own understanding of messianic
expectation Jesus links his own death with the Great
Tribulation, which in turn is linked to the resurrection. The
imagery of scattering and re-gathering is also seen in his
words, both which are inaugurated by his own death (460).
Mention of the resurrection in connection with the tribulation
and restoration of Israel is the key aspect of this passage
(477).
Mark
14-32-42
Jesus’ prayer in Gethsemane is the final passage from the
Gospels in which his death is linked to the tribulation. A key
verse in Pitre’s examination is 14:35: “Keep awake and pray that
you not enter into
peirasmos.”
The language of the passage highlights certain elements which
have been present throughout the thesis, such as
hour,
cup
and
peirasmos.
The setting itself as the Mount of Olives recalls Zechariah
13-14, where the prophet depicts this location as “key to the
outbreak of the final tie of ‘testing’ and tribulation for the
eschatological remnant” (481). The mentioning of the
hour
also points to an appointed time (rather than a particular point
in the evening or of the time of Judas’ betrayal) in which the
eschatological tribulation would begin with Jesus’ suffering and
death - perhaps retaining some elements of the time of betrayal
(482).
Just as Jesus prayed for the
hour
to pass from him, he also prays that this
cup
would be taken from him (v. 36). Pitre’s understanding here is
that the tribulation which Jesus would endure “is
nothing less than an eschatological Passover,
the final great trial that will precede the ingathering of the
exiles in the New Exodus” (487, emphasis in original). This, in
turn, would bring about a coming
peirasmos,
which Pitre’s study leads him to consider as the final
tribulation which would come upon the people of God “before the
dawn of salvation” (488). And it is Jesus’ willingness to enter
into the peirasmos which demonstrates himself as the paschal
Lamb of the New Exodus (491).
Summary
and Conclusions
The conclusions which Pitre draws from this chapter are
fourfold:
-
Along with many scholars in historical Jesus research, Pitre
affirms that “Jesus both spoke of his own imminent death and
saw it as
part
of the eschatological tribulation.”
-
He concludes that Jesus’ expectation of suffering is also
messianic.
-
Pitre identifies Jesus’ understanding of post-tribulation
events included “the exaltation of himself and the Twelve
disciples in the kingdom and the ingathering of the
scattered tribes of Israel.”
-
Pitre also asserts that Jesus’ viewed his own death as
having soteriological and eschatological significance (505,
all emphases in original).
Chapter
Six: Summary and Conclusions
The final chapter of this impressive thesis includes a summary
of the previous chapters (6.1) before turning to implications
for the study of the historical Jesus (6.2). The implications
which gives as conclusions from his study are listed in brief:
-
“. . .Jesus
should be primarily understood within the context of ancient
Jewish restoration eschatology.”
-
“. . .on whether current historical Jesus research will be
open to rethinking long-standing conclusions regarding the
interpretation and authenticity of the Olivet Discourse
(Mark 13).”
-
“. . .the historical Jesus apparently embraced some form of
remnant theology.”
-
“. . .our focus on the eschatological tribulation has also
led us in a somewhat indirect fashion to some important
insights regarding several topics that
are
frequently discussed in most works on the historical Jesus.
. .”
-
“. . .its contribution to the ongoing debate regarding
whether Jesus taught that his death would somehow have
redemptive efficacy”
(515-518, all emphases in original).
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